Tolman’s Sign Learning Theory is one of the important learning theories frequently referenced in teaching exams. Across learning-theory syllabi, there are typically about 11 learning …
Tolman’s Sign Learning Theory is one of the important learning theories frequently referenced in teaching exams. Across learning-theory syllabi, there are typically about 11 learning theories, and competitive examinations often include questions linked to at least one of them. Reviewing each theory once is therefore useful preparation for teaching-related exams of any type.
Edward Tolman and Key Identifiers to Remember
Edward Tolman is known for significant work in the field of psychology. In 1932, he wrote a book related to the cognitive theory of learning titled Purposive Behavior in Animals and Man. This title is important to remember.
It is also important to remember that purposive behavior and purposive learning were not given by Edward Tolman. In competitive exams, such labels and keywords are often asked as “related to whom.” For example, just as the word schema is immediately associated with Piaget, the term latent learning is associated with Tolman.
Tolman’s View of Learning: Learning Through Signs (Sign-Gestalt)
Learning occurs through bits of the environment and through how an organism relates to the environment. What is happening around the learner, what signs are received, and how events are perceived can affect learning. This approach is referred to as sign learning or sign-gestalt learning theory.
Tolman’s view is presented as slightly opposite to Clark Hull’s position. Hull described learning as a strict stimulus–response (S–R) connection: when a stimulus occurs, a response occurs. Tolman, by contrast, described learning as a combination of multiple factors rather than only a strict S–R link.
Purposive Behaviorism and More Than Stimulus–Response
Tolman introduced the term purposive behaviorism. This term is frequently asked in examinations as a direct question: Who gave the term purposive behaviorism? Tolman used this term to describe his system.
Although his work began with a focus similar to behavior, his interest later shifted toward the sign-gestalt approach. Tolman believed individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli. In contrast to the view that learning is only the strengthening of stimulus–response connections (as in the interpretation associated with Thorndike’s emphasis on S–R connection), Tolman argued that individuals’ behavior involves more than simple responding to stimuli.
Tolman’s Maze Experiment and the Cognitive Map
A well-known part of Tolman’s work is his maze-learning experiment with rats. In a maze, a rat is placed at a starting point (A), and a reward (food) is placed at the goal (B). The rat is hungry and reaches the goal, but the key question is how it learns to reach the reward.
Tolman’s maze experiment introduces two possible explanations for how the rat reaches the goal:
- Turning-right explanation: The rat learns a specific response pattern such as “turn right.”
- Cognitive-map explanation (Tolman’s explanation): Based on the environment, signals, and cues (for example, the smell of food), the rat forms an internal representation of the maze and reaches the reward by using this representation.
Cognitive Map: Term, Meaning, and Illustration
The term cognitive map was coined by Tolman. A cognitive map is an internal perceptual representation of an external environment and its features or landmarks. In this view, the rat develops a map-like understanding of where things are located and how to move through space (for example, “if we go from here to there, then this landmark appears”).
Individuals acquire a large number of cues from the environment. An everyday illustration is traveling to a destination (for example, a temple or a mosque) using multiple possible routes. Even without knowing the exact route, as a person moves forward, they gain clues—such as increased crowding, people moving in a certain direction, a bell sound, or an announcement on a loudspeaker. These cues help the person build a cognitive map that supports reaching the goal, including using shortcuts or variable routes.
In this approach, individuals learn many things from the environment, and their expectancies build up for performance. Using the internal representation of physical space, individuals can reach their goals.
Testing the Two Explanations in the Maze
To test whether the rat learned only a response such as turning right, or whether it formed a cognitive map, the rat is placed at a different starting point (C), while the reward remains at B.
- Prediction if “turning right” is correct: Starting from C, the rat should turn right and reach D, even though the reward is at B.
- Prediction if “cognitive map” is correct: Starting from C, the rat should still reach B where the reward is placed.
When tested, most of the rats reached B. This outcome supports the cognitive-map explanation and contradicts the explanation that learning was only “turning right.”
Main Features of Tolman’s Learning Theory
Tolman advanced his learning theory by explaining learning as a process shaped by environmental signs and internal representations. Three main features are emphasized and are commonly asked in exams:
1) Molar theory
Tolman’s theory is molar in nature. Although group behavior is built from individual behavior, when defining behavior, the focus is placed on the behavior of the group rather than on the individual alone.
2) Goal-directed behavior
Behavior is goal-directed. Individuals may have their own end goals and may reach them by overcoming obstacles. However, the theory emphasizes that group behavior remains group-directed rather than individual-directed.
3) Changing behavior
Behavior is not stable or fixed. How an individual behaves within a group changes continuously.
Three Parts of Learning (Terminology)
Tolman also referred to three parts of learning. Although questions are not commonly asked from this in detail, the terms are important to recognize:
Overall, the theory explains that learning is an accumulation of signs, and these signs are configured in cognitive maps. Environmental input influences behavior; therefore, learning remains unique for each individual, reflecting individual differences.
Three Classes of Variables and the Intervening Variable
Tolman discussed three types (classes) of variables and introduced the concept of the intervening variable in learning psychology:
Independent variables
Independent variables are those that do not depend on anything else. In the maze context, examples include:
Dependent variables
Dependent variables depend on the independent variables. The behavior or response that is observed or measured is the dependent variable.
Intervening variables
An intervening variable is a hypothetical construct: it can be defined and measured, but it cannot be directly observed. A key characteristic is that it shows a functional relationship between independent and dependent variables.
Examples include purpose (which can be defined and measured but not directly observed), capacities, and natural capabilities.
Types of Learning in Tolman’s Theory
Tolman’s earlier discussion of types of learning included:
Tolman’s earlier discussion of types of learning included:
Latent learning: learning without an obvious reward
Latent learning means learning that occurs even in the absence of an obvious reward. Even when no reward is given, learning can still take place.
Modified concept: six types of learning
In the modified concept, Tolman discussed six types of learning. These names are important because exam questions often ask them directly.
Learning by cathexis (C-A-T-H-E-X-I-S)
Learners can associate specific objects and ideas with a particular drive, which may be positive or negative.
Example: An employee associates an online training course with promotion. The drive for promotion leads the person to engage in the course and learn something new. This is described as positive cathexis; associating negativity would be negative cathexis.Learning by equivalence belief
This involves treating sub-goals as attractive and meaningful because they are believed to lead to a major end goal.
Example: A student wants to top the final exam (end goal). Because of an equivalence belief, the student also aims to top unit tests and class tests, believing that strong performance in these sub-goals will lead to topping the final exam. The attractiveness of the sub-goals becomes similar to the attractiveness of the end goal.Field expectancies
The learner learns that certain actions will lead to specific outcomes. Field expectancy also supports the development of cognitive maps.Field cognition modes
Actions, memories, and influences from the environment (the “field”) affect learning. Perception, memories, and inferences functionally influence an individual’s learning.Drive discrimination
This is learning to discriminate between competing and more refined drives, enabling discrimination between two alternatives.Motor patterns
This involves learning and refining sensory–motor skills through work on physical motor skills and their refinement.
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